Any social role can be considered in two aspects: role expectation and role performance. There is never a complete and stable coincidence between them. Our roles are determined primarily by people's expectations of the bearer of this status. Therefore, achieving harmony of social roles in human life is not at all easy. This requires great effort, time and ability. And if someone performs their role poorly or does not perform it in accordance with our expectations, then this person enters into role conflict. On the other hand, role conflict may be due to the fact that each person in modern society plays several roles during one day, the requirements of which contradict each other. Role conflict
-
this is a discrepancy between the incompatible requirements of various roles for a given individual
. Role conflicts happen
1. intra-role,
2. inter-role and
3. personal-role.
To intra-role
Conflicts are those in which the demands of the same role contradict and oppose each other. Mothers, for example, are instructed not only to treat their children kindly and affectionately, but also to be demanding and strict towards them. It is not easy to combine these instructions when a beloved child has done something wrong and deserves punishment. The usual way to resolve this intra-role conflict in the family is some redistribution of functions, when the father is given the responsibility to strictly evaluate the behavior and punish the children, and the mother is to soften the bitterness of punishment and console the child. This implies that the parents are unanimous that the punishment is fair.
Interrole
conflicts arise when the requirements of one role contradict or counteract the requirements of another role for a given individual. A striking illustration of such a conflict is the double employment of women. The workload of family women in social production and in everyday life often does not allow them to fully and without harm to their health perform professional duties and run a household, be a charming wife and a caring mother. Many thoughts have been expressed about ways to resolve this conflict. The most realistic options at present and in the foreseeable future seem to be a relatively even distribution of household responsibilities among family members and a reduction in women’s employment in social production (part-time work, weekly work, the introduction of a flexible schedule, the spread of home work, etc.).
Student life, contrary to popular belief, is also not without role conflicts. To master the chosen profession and obtain an education, concentration on educational and scientific activities is required. At the same time, a young person needs varied communication, free time for other activities and hobbies, without which it is impossible to form a full-fledged personality and create his own family. The situation is complicated by the fact that neither education nor varied communication can be postponed to a later date without prejudice to personality formation and professional training.
Personal-role
conflicts arise in situations where the requirements of a social role contradict the properties and life aspirations of the individual. Thus, the social role of a leader requires from a person not only extensive knowledge, but also good willpower, energy, and the ability to communicate with people in various, including critical, situations. If a specialist lacks these qualities, then he cannot cope with his role. People say about this: the hat doesn’t suit Senka.
No less common are situations when a professional role does not allow a person to reveal and demonstrate his abilities and realize his life aspirations. The optimal relationship between personality and role seems to be one in which high but feasible demands are placed on a person at work, and complex but solvable tasks are offered to him.
To reduce role tension and regulate role conflicts, the following basic strategies are used:
¨ rationalization – a purposeful (sometimes unconscious) search for unpleasant sides, aspects of a desired but unattainable role;
¨ separation of roles - temporary removal of one of the roles from practice and turning it off from the consciousness of the individual;
¨ role regulation - conscious and deliberate behavior with the help of which an individual is freed from personal responsibility for the consequences of fulfilling any social role;
¨ continuous socialization – constant preparation to perform more and more new social roles.
The main thing to remember when analyzing role conflict is related to the social mechanisms of interactions in groups. All relationships between roles are regulated by the norms of behavior that develop in groups. STANDARDS
- These are the rules and standards of behavior that govern the interaction between roles in a group, as well as between group members and their role functions. If this role conflict is caused by unformed role requirements, then the main attention should be paid to clarifying the role, bringing its individual elements into line with each other (rationalization of the role). This is best achieved through clarification or addition of group norms. In other cases, the problem should be solved by clarifying the hierarchy of roles in the group or the system of values and goals of the group.
The multiplicity of social roles performed by a person, the inconsistency of role requirements and expectations - this is the reality of a modern dynamic society. To successfully resolve private everyday problems and serious conflicts, it is useful to understand the relationship between social roles and personality. The two extreme positions here are wrong. The first reduces the personality to the multitude of roles it plays and completely dissolves all manifestations of personality in role behavior. According to another position, personality is something independent of social roles, something that a person represents in himself. In reality, there is an interaction between role and personality, as a result of which role behavior bears a more or less significant imprint of the personality, and the roles played influence the character of the person, the appearance of the individual.
The individuality of the individual is manifested in the choice of social roles; in the peculiar nature of the implementation of social roles; the possibility of refusing to perform an unacceptable role.
A person's activities in a certain role have a reverse effect on his personality. For example, the work of a doctor requires from a person, in addition to other qualities, the desire and ability to instill confidence in patients in a favorable outcome of treatment, the work of an engineer requires concern for the reliability and safety of equipment. The degree of influence of a role on a person depends on what value it represents for a person and how much he identifies himself with the role. Therefore, the appearance of speech and thought cliches can be observed not only in the professional activities of a passionate teacher, but also in everyday life and at leisure. Obsession with one's profession can lead to an exaggerated development of certain qualities and some deformation of the personality. Thus, the role of a leader, which prescribes command, command, control and punish, can lead to increased self-esteem, arrogance and other negative personal characteristics.
Therefore, the signs of a mature personality are not only an independent, conscious choice of social roles, their conscientious and creative implementation, but also a certain autonomy, social distance between the role and the individual. It leaves a person the opportunity to look at his role behavior from the outside, evaluate it from the point of view of personal, group and public interests and make the necessary clarifications, and in extreme cases, refuse an unworthy role.
Every day a person enters into communication and meets new people.
During communication, misunderstandings sometimes arise
, which leads to .
If at the same time the individual performed certain duties, the incident is considered role-playing. Psychologists call certain types of role conflicts, each of which has certain characteristics.
You will find ways to resolve intergroup conflicts in our.
Concept
Role conflict is a situation where a person performs a certain social role.
, but it does not meet his interests or internal attitudes, or the individual simply cannot cope with the responsibilities assigned to him, which this or that role implies.
Psychologists call the role of realizing oneself in society according to one’s strengths and personal qualities.
If a person increasingly dislikes the role, negative emotions accumulate inside
, certain settings appear. The individual experiences stress, which develops into a crisis. As a result, the person may step away from the role.
For example: a person does not want to be a teacher, but circumstances force him to work in this profession. He does something he doesn't like, plays a role he doesn't like
.
As a result, he will either come to terms with his situation, or find another job and stop playing the role of a teacher.
Types of social roles, my social roles
The types of social roles are determined by the variety of social groups, types of activities and relationships in which the individual is included. Depending on social relations, social and interpersonal social roles are distinguished.
Social roles are associated with social status, profession or type of activity (teacher, student, student, salesperson). These are standardized impersonal roles, built on the basis of rights and responsibilities, regardless of who plays these roles. There are socio-demographic roles: husband, wife, daughter, son, grandson... Man and woman are also social roles, biologically predetermined and presupposing specific modes of behavior, enshrined in social norms and customs.
Interpersonal roles are associated with interpersonal relationships that are regulated at the emotional level (leader, offended, neglected, family idol, loved one, etc.).
In my opinion, each person acts in some dominant social role, a unique social role as the most typical individual image, familiar to those around him. Changing a habitual image is extremely difficult both for the person himself and for the perception of the people around him.
I now move on to consider my social roles, so who am I?
My first social roles were as the daughter of my parents, the granddaughter of my grandparents, my sister, my niece. These roles are considered innate.
I am also a friend and acquaintance. I am a sociable person, I make acquaintances easily. I'm lucky in this life - there are a lot of really good people around me.
I am a student, a former student. I like to study, although I am not an excellent student, but if I need to do something in my studies, at least I always get positive results.
My main role, which determines social status, has not yet been defined; it is the status or job role, which is acquired when a person begins to work.
So, to summarize the above: the totality of social roles performed by an individual forms the role set of the individual. The formation of a role set is the result of socialization, during which we learn new roles.
Causes and meaning
Causes of occurrence
These conflicts are:
As a rule, the formed foundations in society, the rules, put pressure on a person
. If a role requires the performance of complex actions and a person cannot cope with them, not only an internal conflict arises - experiences, but also an external one, when condemnation by society appears.
The actions of an individual are assessed by others and sometimes highly condemned, which only intensifies role conflict.
Role conflicts arise due to contradictions
between the role positions of the individual, his capabilities and the corresponding role behavior.
However, role conflicts are sometimes necessary for an individual to understand himself
and understand whether the selected role fits or needs to be changed.
About the social roles of a person in this video:
Description of interpersonal conflict
The economic planning department, which employs 11 women, is headed by a woman of near retirement age who has worked at the enterprise for more than 20 years and has long held a leadership position. A young employee comes to the department, active, sociable, with a good education. She quickly demonstrated the ability to independently resolve production issues at a high quality level. Many saw in her the future head of the department. The head of the department, who initially warmly welcomed the new employee, began to unreasonably find fault with her, make offensive remarks in front of everyone, and constantly criticize, causing tears and resentment in the young employee. Other department employees did not interfere with the events taking place. The head of the department was a powerful woman, accustomed to administration and not allowing any discussion of her actions. A young promising employee was faced with a choice: leave for another department or somehow change the current situation? This is an example of vertical interrole interpersonal conflict based on fear of competition.
Conflict can arise between an individual and a group if the individual takes a position that differs from the group. The conflict between the group and the leader is most difficult with an authoritarian leadership style.
Intergroup conflict arises due to the divergence of interests of various formal and informal groups included in the structure of the organization. An example of intergroup conflict is disagreement between management and staff. This is dysfunctional conflict.
The division of conflicts into types is quite arbitrary; there is no rigid boundary between different types. In addition, the same conflict can be both interpersonal and intergroup.
Examples and methods of resolution
There are many known role conflicts that affect not only adults, but also adolescents.
. It is possible to resolve such situations if you make some efforts.
Careerist
An example of such a conflict is a professionally successful woman
.
She has achieved heights in her career, but when she comes home, she is completely unable to cope with the role of a wife or mother.
.
It is difficult for her to communicate with children, cook food, and clean the apartment. She either does not have enough time for this, or is simply lost in fulfilling the role of a mother or wife.
To solve this situation, it is necessary to distribute some household responsibilities between the husband and children
, if a woman cannot cope alone, or the woman herself needs to see more advantages in the role of wife and mother.
She probably doesn't like these roles very much, she needs to show them in a positive light
: arrange family holidays, picnics, make a gift with your own hands, show care.
Then she will like this role more, she will want to express herself more with her family.
Small victories in the role of wife or mother will especially help her.
, namely a deliciously prepared lunch, significant help for children with homework, handicrafts. Relatives will definitely appreciate this, which will certainly make the woman happy.
Teenager
Another example of such a conflict is a young man growing up
.
He is used to behaving like a teenager, taking liberties, having fun, not thinking about serious life issues, but a little time passes and society demands a certain seriousness from him.
The environment can exert pressure
regarding the choice of profession, field of activity, starting a family. An individual may not be internally mature for such questions, but he is forced to.
It turns out that he does not fulfill the role that age imposes on him, there is a discrepancy between internal sensations and socially established concepts.
To resolve this conflict, it is necessary to stop putting pressure on a person, to give the opportunity for a certain freedom
. The time will come when a person himself will unconsciously fulfill a role appropriate to his age.
He will solve certain issues himself
, will avoid internal crisis and stressful situations. Sometimes young people need time to find themselves and try on a certain role.
Sometimes it becomes completely unexpected even among the family. However, the choice must be made by the individual himself, without pressure exerted on him.
Change of profession
An equally interesting example is the situation when an individual changes the field of professional activity
.
One specialty implied certain responsibilities, but with a change of profession they also changed; the individual needs to get used to the new role.
Very often a person is not ready for such changes
: He remembers the old role and does not adhere to the new one. This may give rise to certain misunderstandings on the part of society.
To solve a problem, a person is given time
, so he gets used to the new, adapts to new conditions. If he does not fully understand that he needs it, he should be told about it gently, avoiding stressful situations.
Gradually the new role will be learned and accepted by the individual. He will not want to part with her and will be surprised by the fears that troubled him in the past.
Three types of intrapersonal (psychological) conflicts
Thus, the authors of the work “Psychology of the Individual and the Group” distinguish three types of intrapersonal (psychological) conflicts:
1 Conflict of needs.His
the reason is that our needs can oppose each other and motivate us to different actions. Sometimes we want contradictory things at the same time and therefore cannot act. For example: a child wants to eat candy. But his mother asks him to give the treat to her. In this case, the child would like to eat the candy and also give it to the mother. He experiences a conflict of needs and begins to cry.
2 Conflict between need and social norm.
A very strong need can collide within us with a coercive imperative. Regardless of whether we give in to this need or not, the situation becomes conflictual.
Numerous examples of this kind of intrapersonal conflicts are described by Z. Freud. In his terminology, the contradiction that causes this type of conflict is the contradiction between the It (Id)
and
Superego (Superego).
It (Id) is the concentration of blind instincts (either sexual or aggressive) seeking immediate gratification. The super-ego (superego) includes moral norms, prohibitions and rewards acquired by the individual.
3 Conflict of social norms.
The essence of this conflict is that a person experiences equal pressure from two opposing social norms.
In the last century, a duel, prohibited by the church, was the only socially recognized means of washing away an insult and restoring one’s honor. The conflict situation for the believing nobleman was the contradiction between class and religious duty.
A more complete classification of intrapersonal conflicts is contained in the work of A. Ya. Antsupov and A. I. Shipilov, who proposed taking the value-motivational sphere of personality as the basis for the classification. Depending on which aspects of the individual’s inner world come into conflict, they distinguish the following main types:
1 Motivational conflict.
These are conflicts between unconscious aspirations, between the desires for possession and security, between two positive tendencies (the situation of Buridan's donkey).
2Moral conflict
which is often called moral or normative conflict. This is a conflict between desire and duty, between moral principles and personal attachments.
3Conflict of unfulfilled desire, or inferiority complex.
This is a conflict between the desires of the individual and reality, which blocks their satisfaction. Sometimes it is interpreted as a conflict between “I want to be like them” and the impossibility of realizing this desire. It can arise as a result of a person’s physical inability to fulfill this desire. For example, due to dissatisfaction with one's appearance or physical characteristics.
4Role conflict.
It is expressed in experiences associated with the inability to simultaneously fulfill several roles
(inter-role
intrapersonal conflict), as well as with different understandings of the requirements imposed by the individual himself to fulfill one role (
intra-role
conflict). An example of inter-role intrapersonal conflict would be a situation where a person, as an employee of an organization, is asked to work overtime, but as a father, he wants to devote more time to his child. An example of an intra-role conflict is a situation when a believer, in order to defend the fatherland, needs to take up a weapon and go to war to kill.
5 Adaptation conflict.
This conflict has two meanings. In a broad sense, it is understood as arising on the basis of an imbalance between the subject and the environment, in a narrow sense - as arising when the process of social or professional adaptation is disrupted. This is a conflict between the demands that reality places on an individual and the capabilities of the person himself (professional, physical, mental).
6 Conflict of inadequate self-esteem
arises due to the discrepancy between the individual’s claims and the assessment of one’s capabilities.
The result of this is increased anxiety, emotional stress and breakdowns.
7 Neurotic conflict -
the result of an ordinary intrapersonal conflict persisting for a long time, characterized by high tension and confrontation between the internal forces and motives of the individual.
Internal reasons
The internal causes of intrapersonal conflict are rooted in the contradictions between various motives of the individual, in the mismatch of its internal structure. Moreover, the more complex a person’s inner world is, the more developed his feelings, values and aspirations, the higher his ability for self-analysis, the more the personality is susceptible to conflict. Among the main contradictions that cause internal conflict are the following:
- contradiction between need and social norm. The intrapersonal conflict that arises on this basis is classically described by 3. Freud;
- contradiction of motives, interests and needs (you both want to go to the theater and need to prepare for a seminar);
- contradiction of social roles (and in production you have to stay late to fulfill an urgent order, and take a walk with the child);
- contradiction of social values and norms: how to combine the Christian value “thou shalt not kill” and the duty of defending the fatherland on the battlefield.
For an intrapersonal conflict to arise, these contradictions must acquire a deep personal meaning, otherwise a person will not attach importance to them. In addition, the different sides of the contradictions should be approximately equal in the strength of their impact on the individual. Otherwise, a person easily chooses the lesser of two evils, and the greater of two goods. And no conflict arises.
External reasons
External causes of intrapersonal conflict can be caused by: the position of the individual in the group, 2)
the position of the individual in the organization,
3)
the position of the individual in society.
1 External causes of intrapersonal conflict, determined by the position of the individual in the group,
may be varied.
But their common feature is the impossibility of satisfying any important needs and motives that have deep inner meaning and significance for the individual in a given situation. In the work “Psychology of the Individual and the Group,” in this regard, four
types of situations that cause intrapersonal conflict are identified:
1) physical barriers that prevent the satisfaction of our basic needs: a prisoner whose cell does not allow freedom of movement; bad weather preventing harvesting; insufficient income that does not allow the housewife to purchase what she wants; a lowered barrier or a sentry, not allowing entry into one place or another;
2) the absence of an object necessary to satisfy the felt need (I want to drink a cup of coffee, but the shops are closed and there is no more coffee left at home);
3) biological limitations (mentally retarded people and people with physical defects, for whom the obstacle is rooted in the body itself);
4) social conditions (the main source of the largest number of our intrapersonal conflicts).
When our need for respect is not understood, when we are deprived of freedom or feel like strangers in our class because of the attitude of some people towards us, we are in a state of frustration.
There are many examples of conflict situations of this type in the life of society, since very often groups exert pressure on their members, which leads to personal conflicts.
2 At the organizational
external causes causing intrapersonal conflict can be represented by such types of contradictions as:
1) the contradiction between great responsibility and insufficient rights for its implementation (a person was promoted, new employees were given subordination, functions were expanded, etc., but the rights remained the same);
2) the contradiction between strict requirements for deadlines and quality of task completion and poor working conditions (the production task must be completed at all costs, but the equipment is old and constantly breaks down);
3) a contradiction between two mutually exclusive requirements or tasks (requirements to simultaneously improve the quality of products and at the same time increase their production with unchanged equipment);
4) the contradiction between a strictly defined task and poorly defined mechanisms and means for its implementation. (In our recent past, under the conditions of a rigid planned economy, the slogan “plan at any cost” was popular in this regard);
5) the contradiction between production requirements, norms and traditions in the organization, on the one hand, and personal values or needs, on the other. (Constant work on weekends, constant rush jobs, the practice of bribes and gifts, fawning, the habit of a boss pestering subordinates with advances, systematic collective drinking at work, etc. - these kinds of requirements, customs and norms may not be acceptable for people who are not meet their values and needs);
6) the contradiction between the desire for creativity, career, self-affirmation and the possibilities of realizing this within the organization. (Many people strive for advanced training and self-realization as a vital goal, and if there are no conditions for this, intrapersonal conflict may develop);
7) contradictions caused by the incompatibility of social roles of the individual. (This cause of intrapersonal conflict occurs quite often. Its content consists in the contradiction between the functions that a person must perform, having different statuses. In this case, different roles will make different, perhaps even contradictory demands on a person. For example, the status of the head of an organization will make certain demands and standards of behavior in relation to a subordinate, and the status of a close friend will make different ones);
the contradiction between the desire for profit and moral standards. (A person works in an organization that produces profitable, but poor quality or harmful products for consumers).
3 External causes of intrapersonal conflict, determined by the position of the individual in society.
These reasons are associated with contradictions that arise at the level of the social macrosystem and are rooted in the nature of the social system, the social structure of society, its political structure and economic life.
If an intrapersonal conflict is not resolved in a timely manner, it can lead to more serious consequences,
the most powerful of which are stress, frustration and neurosis.
Stress
(from the English stress - pressure, tension) is a human condition that arises in response to various emotional influences. It can manifest itself at the physiological, psychological and behavioral levels and is a very common reaction to an intrapersonal conflict if it has gone far enough and the person is not able to resolve it in a timely and constructive manner. At the same time, stress itself often provokes further development of the conflict or gives rise to new conflicts, as some try to take out their irritation and anger on others. This problem will be discussed in more detail in Chap. eleven.
Frustration
(from Latin frustratio - disorder, destruction of plans) - a person’s mental state caused by insurmountable objective (or subjectively perceived as such) difficulties that arise on the way to achieving a goal or solving a problem. Frustration is always a painful experience of failure or an insoluble contradiction. It can be considered a form of psychological stress.
Frustration is a negative consequence of intrapersonal conflict, when the increase in tension exceeds frustration tolerance, i.e. Personal resistance to frustrators. A frustrator is a cause that causes frustration. It is accompanied by a whole range of negative emotions: anger, irritation, guilt, etc. And the stronger the intrapersonal conflict, the greater the depth of frustration. Different people deal with it differently. Everyone has their own threshold of sensitivity and has individual strengths to overcome the frustration reaction to intrapersonal conflict.
Neuroses
(from the Greek neuron - nerve) is a group of the most common neuropsychic disorders of a psychogenic nature. Neuroses are based on an unproductively resolved contradiction between the personality and the factors of reality that are significant for it.
A deep intrapersonal conflict, which a person is unable to resolve positively and rationally, is the most important cause of neuroses. This impossibility of resolving the conflict is accompanied by the emergence of painful and painful experiences of failure, unmet needs, unattainability of life goals, loss of meaning in life, etc. The appearance of neuroses means that the intrapersonal conflict has developed into a neurotic conflict.
How to avoid?
To avoid role conflicts, you should remember several principles: if it develops, you should seek help from a psychologist who will help solve the problem.
Role conflicts occur frequently:
They can appear not only in adults, internally mature people, but also in adolescents who are just learning to take on new roles, getting used to the previously unknown, and learning to behave in society in a certain way.
It is quite possible to cope with such situations. Main mistake
, which individuals allow is an attempt to solve the problem on their own, without turning to loved ones for help due to fear of misunderstanding.
By taking into account certain circumstances, studying oneself and talking with family, a person will come to a constructive decision much faster and the internal conflict will be resolved. If you don’t fight this, you won’t be able to overcome the crisis and stress.
What causes social conflicts? find out right now.
The video briefly and clearly talks about the essence of role tension and role conflict:
Communication and relationships are as important to humans as breathing. After all, without them we will not be able to learn even the most basic things. From the very beginning of life, we communicate with our family, then with children, adults, and then we ourselves grow up. Relationships with every page of life change: first we are children, sisters, brothers, then for some we are friends, classmates, colleagues, subordinates or managers. Depending on the functions we perform, we play different social roles.
Gleb - bread))))))))))))))))))))
Role conflict is a situation in which an individual with a certain status is faced with incompatible expectations.
The situation of role conflict is caused by the fact that the individual is unable to fulfill the requirements of the role.
In role theories, it is customary to distinguish between two types of conflicts : inter-role and intra-role .
Interrole include conflicts caused by the fact that an individual simultaneously has to perform too many different roles and therefore he is not able to meet all the requirements of these roles, either because he does not have enough time and physical capabilities for this, or various roles present him with incompatible ones. requirements.
In studies of inter-role conflict, the work of the American social psychologist W. G. Goode, “The Theory of Role Tension,” should be highlighted.
He calls role tension the state of an individual in a situation of inter-role conflict and proposes a theory, the essence of which boils down to identifying ways to relieve this tension.
To do this, it is necessary to free oneself from a number of roles, and make the expenditure of time and energy to perform the rest dependent on the significance of this role for the individual, the positive and negative sanctions that failure to fulfill certain roles may cause; reactions of others to the refusal of certain roles.
When it comes to inter-role conflicts, the example most often cited is the marginalized individual.
Analysis of intra-role conflict reveals conflicting demands placed on holders of the same role by different social groups.
A classic study in this area is considered to be M. Komarovskaya’s , which was conducted among female students at one of the American colleges.
The results of the study showed the contradictory expectations of the demands placed on female college students by parents and college students.
Role conflicts are common.
This is explained by the complexity of social relations, the increasing differentiation of the social structure and the further division of social labor.
Role conflicts, according to researchers, negatively affect interaction, so social psychologists are trying to develop some general concepts that justify ways to eliminate role conflicts.
One of these concepts is W. Goode’s theory of role tension.
A similar approach can be found in the works of N. Gross and W. Mason .
They identify three groups of factors related to the problem of eliminating role conflicts.
The first is related to the subjective attitude towards the role of its performer.
The second group includes sanctions (positive and negative) that can be applied for performance or non-performance of a role.
The authors include the type of orientation of the role performer in the third group of factors, among which they distinguish two: orientation to moral values and pragmatic orientation.
Inter-role and intra-role conflicts - concept and types. Classification and features of the category “Inter-role and intra-role Conflicts” 2020, 2017-2018.
Conflict - what kind of phenomenon?
It should be noted that in order to fulfill a social role, a person needs certain skills and time to learn how to do this. Sometimes it turns out that the same subject must perform conflicting duties. A striking example is the wife-director. At home she should be subordinate to her husband, and at work she should indicate to her subordinates. Because of this, contradictions appear within the individual (internal conflicts) and tense relationships with others. It is precisely because of his status and position in society that certain requirements are imposed on a person. Social role is the behavior of people depending on different requirements for them. One and the same person can simultaneously be a brother, father, son-in-law, worker, friend.
These types of role conflicts differ significantly from each other. Inter-role conflicts occur when the behavior of a person performing different roles does not meet the expectations of others. These expectations and requirements in most cases do not depend on the subject himself. They are formed by public opinion, traditions, and stereotypes. Intra-role confrontations depend on a person’s perception of his behavior in terms of the expectations that his environment has for him. There is a process of layering the ideas of people and their groups onto the role performed by one subject.
Types of role conflicts are complemented by one more: personal-role conflict. It involves a discrepancy between the role and the needs and values of the individual. This type of collision is also considered intrapersonal. Such examples of role conflicts from life are common. Thus, an honest young accountant, trying to do his job correctly, will constantly struggle within himself if his superiors expect him to engage in financial fraud for their own benefit.
6.1.2. Types of conflicts
Conflicts are divided according to various criteria depending on the approach and goals of the analysis. A generalized classification of conflicts is presented in Table. 6.1.
Table 6.1
Types of conflicts
[196]
In an organization, open real
(realistic) conflict in which the differences of the parties are clearly expressed and the goals do not go beyond what is possible under given specific conditions. Overt conflict most often plays out on a business basis, but many seemingly “business” conflicts are based on feelings and relationships. These are hidden, “smoldering” conflicts. They are hidden from the observer and are recognized by indirect signs, the main one of which is tension in interpersonal communication.
Unreal
Conflicts are most often caused by the expression of accumulated negative emotions and grievances. Conflict behavior in this case does not pursue a constructive goal, does not lead to the development of relationships, and is always dysfunctional.[197]
Often motivational conflicts, conflicts of interest, communications, etc. arise in an organization.
Conflict management in an organization involves influencing the people involved in the conflict. Depending on the subjects of conflict interaction, intrapersonal, interpersonal, interpersonal-group and intergroup conflicts are distinguished.
Among intrapersonal
conflicts are dominated by role ones, which are divided into inter-role and intra-role.
Inter-role
conflict arises if an employee has to “play” several roles at once, which he cannot harmonize (for example, the role of a friend and a manager in relation to the same person).
Intra-role
conflict occurs when an employee’s idea of a role (behavior in a corresponding position) does not coincide with the requirements or expectations of the organization (job descriptions) or a superior manager (often this is expressed in a conflict of moral values). Such conflicts can be functional or dysfunctional, depending on what role a person chooses for himself as the main one and whether he can harmonize his behavior in accordance with the expectations of others.
In addition to role conflicts, the following intrapersonal conflicts are distinguished:
1) conflict of choice in conditions of abundance
when a person experiences doubts, therefore, there is an intrapersonal conflict;
2) conflict of choosing the least evil
when all options cause internal resistance, but it is necessary to choose from them;
3) conflict of opposing perceptions
, which arises due to the opposite perception of the same situation by the employee and, for example, members of his family, on whose decisions his position depends.
Interpersonal conflict in organizations is the most common. This could be a struggle between managers for limited resources (finance or labor, time to use equipment or approval of a project, etc.) or a quarrel between two employees with different characters, views and value orientations, which leads to the inability to interact with each other in work process.
Description of interpersonal conflict
Conflict can arise between an individual and a group if the individual takes a position that differs from the group. The conflict between the group and the leader is most difficult with an authoritarian leadership style.
Intergroup
conflict arises due to the divergence of interests of various formal and informal groups included in the structure of the organization.
An example of intergroup conflict is disagreement between management and staff. This is dysfunctional
conflict.
The division of conflicts into types is quite arbitrary; there is no rigid boundary between different types. In addition, the same conflict can be both interpersonal and intergroup.
Why does role conflict occur?
The clashes between people, their expectations and ideas, largely depend on the formed norms and rules of society. If a person does not conform to established stereotypes and rules, as well as legal norms for regulating behavior, he experiences a role conflict. You need to understand that it does not appear out of nowhere. First, a person’s action occurs (within the framework of his activity), then his behavior is analyzed from the outside based on the listed mechanisms, then an assessment is given.
Mechanisms of psychological defense during clashes of expectations
Role conflict brings discomfort to a person, because any interference in his inner world is regarded as an encroachment on the security and recognition of the individual. Therefore, during such clashes, protective mechanisms of the psyche are triggered, helping the subject maintain internal harmony.
- Separation of roles.
A person deliberately temporarily stops performing one of the roles, thereby giving himself the opportunity to rest and “reboot”. But, at the same time, he continues to respond to the requirements that relate to the performance of this role. - Rationalization.
It occurs when the subject wishes, but due to certain circumstances, cannot behave according to the expectations of others. Defending against a significant role, the human psyche looks for its negative aspects in order to prevent role conflict. Examples of such defense are often found among schoolchildren, people who cannot achieve their goals.
Definition and theory
According to the definition of role conflict by one of the leading specialists in the field of role theories, Bruce Biddle, “role conflict is any of several possible relatively long-lasting incongruities between elements of roles exhibited by people in a social situation, which leads to problems for one or more of those people as individuals."[1]
Role conflicts arise from contradictions between three groups of factors: a) organizational
(role prescriptions, or socially assigned role positions);
b) interpersonal
(style of interaction, mutual role expectations);
c) personal
(motives, values, fears, self-concept of a person).
Types of role conflicts
In different sources, there are from 4 to 16 types of role conflicts, the most common are: a) intra-role
- internal conflict between different components or varieties of the same role;
b) interrole
- internal conflict between incompatible (divergent) roles played by one individual;
c) intrapersonal
- internal conflict between different models of the same role;
d) interpersonal
- external conflict between incompatible (divergent) roles of different people.[2]
Internal role conflicts are based on contradictions between a person’s role behavior and his idea of himself as a subject of this role. It arises when a person accepts a psychological role only externally, at the level of behavior, but cannot accept it internally, at the level of experience, and consider it his own. A situation of internal role conflict can arise when a person is forced to accept a psychological role under the pressure of external circumstances. Internal role conflict can also arise in a situation where the same role is subject to conflicting expectations from different subjects or groups that cannot be satisfied at the same time.
External role conflicts are most often based on contradictions between a person’s actual role behavior and the role expectations of others. It arises in situations when a person does not want or cannot fulfill the social role that he should play according to his position in the group, or does not accept social role stereotypes and norms accepted in society. As a result of such a violation on the part of society, sanctions of varying degrees of severity may follow. External role conflict can also arise when a person changes his role behavior. The desire to play a new role encounters old expectations formed in the group, which force the person to return to the previous role.
Internal and external conflicts can turn into one another. By succumbing to group pressure and changing his role behavior to something socially desirable, a person “drives” the conflict inside. On the contrary, if, due to internal motivation, he “throws off” the unwanted role, then the conflict turns into an external one. Conformist and hypersocialized individuals gravitate towards internal role conflict, which, in essence, is a neurotic response to the situation. Personalities characterized by psychopathic maladaptation, on the contrary, are inclined to the external.
The difference between tension and conflict within a role
We all go through a certain process of socialization. From a young age, children repeat the actions of adults, thereby adopting experience and role-playing behavior. Everyone goes through the process of socialization differently, some have had good experience since childhood, others have not seen anything positive. When a person grows up, he begins to behave according to his position and role. And here role tension can arise - the subject is simply not ready for the demands that the public places on him. To eliminate such tension, students undergo practical training, teenagers learn household management skills, and so on.
Tension increases and leads to conflicts when opposing roles are layered on top of each other. For example, a girl is passing exams, being a successful student, and trying to care for a child, having recently taken on the role of mother.
Classification of conflicts (page 2 of 3)
– Motivational conflict. These are conflicts between unconscious aspirations, between the desires for possession and security, between two positive tendencies (the situation of Buridan's donkey).
– Moral conflict, often called moral or normative conflict. This is a conflict between desire and duty, between moral principles and personal attachments.
– A conflict of unfulfilled desire, or an inferiority complex, is a conflict between the desires of an individual and reality, which blocks their satisfaction. Sometimes it is interpreted as a conflict between “I want to be like them” and the inability to realize this desire. It can arise as a result of a person’s physical inability to fulfill this desire. For example, due to dissatisfaction with one's appearance or physical characteristics.
– Role conflict – is expressed in experiences associated with the inability to simultaneously fulfill several roles (inter-role intrapersonal conflict), as well as with different understandings of the requirements imposed by the individual himself to fulfill one role (intra-role conflict). An example of inter-role intrapersonal conflict would be a situation where a person, as an employee of an organization, is asked to work overtime, but as a father, he wants to devote more time to his child. An example of an intra-role conflict is a situation when a believer, in order to defend the fatherland, needs to take up arms and go to war to kill.
– Adaptation conflict has two meanings. In a broad sense, it is understood as arising on the basis of an imbalance between the subject and the environment, in a narrow sense - as arising when the process of social or professional adaptation is disrupted. This is a conflict between the demands that reality places on an individual and the capabilities of the person himself (professional, physical, mental).
– The conflict of inadequate self-esteem arises due to the discrepancy between the individual’s claims and the assessment of one’s capabilities. The result of this is increased anxiety, emotional stress and breakdowns.
– Neurotic conflict is the result of an ordinary intrapersonal conflict persisting for a long time, characterized by high tension and confrontation between the internal forces and motives of the individual.
The named types of conflicts do not completely exhaust their classification. Depending on other reasons, a different typology of intrapersonal conflicts can be given. This is evidenced by the very history of the development of conflictological concepts, which distinguish various types of intrapersonal conflicts. Let us note the main ones:[8]
– The conflict between morality and ethics, between what should be and what is, between the moral ideal and reality (I. Kant, F. Dostoevsky).
– The conflict between human drives, biological needs and social norms, which is biological and biosocial in nature (3. Freud).
– A conflict caused by the need to choose between forces of equal magnitude acting on a person (K. Levin).
– The conflict between the “I-concept” and the ideal “I” (K. Rogers).
– The conflict between the desire for self-actualization and the real result (A. Maslow).
– The conflict between the desire for the meaning of life and the existential vacuum, i.e. “noogenic” conflict, or “existential frustration” (V. Frankl).
– Conflict between the elements of the internal structure of a personality, between its motives (A. Leontyev).
Interpersonal (socio-psychological) conflict.
This type of conflict is perhaps the most common. It manifests itself in different ways in organizations. Most often, this is a struggle between managers over limited resources, capital or labor, time to use equipment, or approval of a project. Each of them believes that since resources are limited, he must convince his superiors to allocate these resources to him and not to another manager. Or imagine that two artists are working on the same advertisement, but have different points of view regarding the way it should be presented. Everyone tries to convince the director to accept his point of view. A similar conflict, only more subtle and lasting, can occur between two candidates for promotion if there is one vacancy.
Interpersonal conflict can also manifest itself as a clash of personalities. People with different personality traits, views and values are sometimes simply unable to get along with each other. As a rule, the views and goals of such people differ radically.
Conflict between the individual and the group.
As the results of experiments show, production groups establish norms of behavior and performance. Everyone must comply with them in order to be accepted by the informal group and thereby satisfy their social needs. However, if the expectations of the group are in conflict with the expectations of the individual, conflict may arise. For example, someone will want to earn more, either by working overtime or by exceeding the quota, and the group views such “excessive” diligence as negative behavior.
Conflict may arise between an individual and a group if that individual takes a position different from that of the group. For example, when discussing the possibility of increasing sales at a meeting, most will believe that this can be achieved by lowering the price. Some people, however, will be firmly convinced that such tactics will lead to a decrease in profits and create the perception that their products are of lower quality than those of their competitors. Although this person, whose opinion differs from the group, may have the company's interests at heart, he can still be seen as a source of conflict because he goes against the group's opinion.
A similar conflict may arise based on the manager's job responsibilities: between the need to ensure adequate productivity and adherence to the rules and procedures of the organization. A manager may be forced to take disciplinary action that may be unpopular with subordinates. Then the group can strike back - change its attitude towards the leader and, possibly, reduce productivity.
Intergroup (social) conflict.
Society consists of many groups, both formal and informal. Even in the most highly organized society, conflicts can arise between such groups. Similar processes occur at the enterprise level. For example, informal organizations that believe that the manager is treating them unfairly may unite more tightly and try to “settle” with him by reducing productivity. Another example of intergroup conflict is the ongoing conflict between a union and management.
Often, due to differences in goals, functional groups within the organization begin to conflict with each other. For example, the sales department tends to be customer-oriented, while the manufacturing department is more concerned with cost-efficiency and economies of scale. Holding large inventories in order to quickly fill orders, as the sales department prefers, means increasing costs, and this is contrary to the interests of the production departments. The day shift of medical staff may blame the night shift for providing poor patient care. In large organizations, one division may try to increase its profitability by selling finished products to outside customers rather than meeting the needs of other divisions of the company for its products at a lower price.
According to their direction, all conflicts are divided into “horizontal”, “vertical” and “mixed”.[9]
“Horizontal” include those conflicts in which persons subordinate to each other are not involved.
“Vertical” conflicts include those that affect persons subordinate to one another. These conflicts initially take place in unequal conditions for rivals, since managers have greater resources and capabilities than subordinates.
“Mixed” conflicts have both “horizontal” and “vertical” components.
According to their function, conflicts are divided into constructive (creative) and destructive (destructive, unconstructive). [10]
The manifestations of the destructive functions of conflict are extremely diverse. Intrapersonal conflict, for example, gives rise to a state of psychological discomfort, which in turn entails a series of various negative consequences and, in extreme cases, can lead to the destruction of the individual. At the group level, conflict can disrupt the system of communications and relationships, weaken value-orientation unity, reduce group cohesion and ultimately reduce the efficiency of the group as a whole. Similarly, the destructive functions of conflict manifest themselves in intergroup relationships. Note that the destructive influence of a conflict can occur at each stage of its evolution: the stage of an objective conflict situation, the stage of its awareness by the parties, the stage of conflict behavior, as well as at the stage of conflict resolution. The destructive effects of conflict are usually especially acute at the stage of conflict behavior and conflict actions.
The constructive impacts of conflict are also very diverse. Thus, it is well known that intrapersonal conflict is not only capable of having a negative impact on the individual, but also often serves as a powerful source of personal development and improvement (for example, in the form of a feeling of dissatisfaction with oneself). In group and intergroup relations, conflict can help prevent stagnation and serve as a source of innovation and development (the emergence of new goals, norms, values). Conflict, especially at the stage of conflict behavior, plays a cognitive role, the role of practical verification and correction of the parties’ images of the situation. In addition, by revealing, exposing objective contradictions that exist between group members (groups), and eliminating them at the resolution stage, the conflict frees the group from the factors that undermine it and thereby contributes to its stabilization. It is also well known that external conflict can perform an integrative function, uniting a group in the face of external danger and external problems.
Ways to resolve role conflicts
They are divided into two types:
The first type is that a person has the opportunity to protect himself from role conflicts. He may quit his job, stop communicating with his old friends, change his vacation spot, and so on.
The second type, on an unconscious level, protects us from unnecessary stress associated with role tension and conflict. Here the classic defense mechanisms come first: repression, isolation, rationalization, identification and some others. He begins to actively act when there is no way to solve the situation differently; the person either does not know how to do it or cannot. In this case, it is not the situation of conflict or tension that changes, but the person’s attitude towards it, his perception of the environment.
Social status characterizes a person’s position in society and is determined by his gender and ethnicity, social and financial status, professional skills, and so on.
The social role, in turn, is his expected behavior, determined by his status. But situations often arise when the role performed does not correspond to the status occupied, or the roles performed, two or more, conflict with each other. In this case, we talk about a role conflict of the individual.
Different degrees of severity and depth of role conflicts are associated with the following two factors:
the degree of difference between the roles in terms of the requirements they make - the more common requirements two roles make, the less significant the role conflict that they can cause;
the degree of severity of the requirements imposed by the roles - the more strictly the role requirements are defined and the stricter their compliance is required, the more difficult it is for their performer to evade fulfilling these requirements and the more likely it is that these roles can cause serious role conflict.
In the most general form, there are two types of role conflicts: between roles and within the same role.
Often two or more roles contain incompatible, conflicting responsibilities for a person. For example, a working wife finds that the demands of her day job may conflict with her household responsibilities. A married director must reconcile the demands placed on him as a husband with the demands placed on him as a leader; a police officer must sometimes choose between fulfilling his official duty and arresting a close friend. This kind of conflict refers to role conflict between roles.
An example of a conflict occurring within one role is the position of a leader or public figure who publicly proclaims one point of view, but in a narrow circle declares himself a supporter of the opposite, or a person who, under the pressure of circumstances, plays a role that does not meet either his interests or his interests. internal installations.
In many roles played by people, there are so-called conflicts of interest, in which the obligations to be honest towards society, traditions, the workforce, and family come into conflict with the desire to earn more money, not fulfill or perform their duties poorly, and hide violations. Experience shows that very few roles are free from internal tension and conflict. If the conflict escalates, it can lead to refusal to fulfill role obligations, withdrawal from a given role, and internal stress.
There are several types of actions with the help of which role tension can be reduced and the human “I” can be protected from many unpleasant experiences. This includes rationalization, division and regulation of roles.
The first two types of actions are considered unconscious defense mechanisms that a person uses purely instinctively. However, if these processes are understood and used intentionally, their effectiveness is greatly enhanced.
As for the third method of action, it is used mainly consciously and rationally.
Rationalization of roles
- one of the ways to protect against a person’s painful perception of any situation with the help of concepts that are socially and personally desirable for him. Rationalization hides the reality of role conflict by unconsciously searching for unpleasant aspects of a desired but unattainable role.
A classic example is the plot of the fable by I.A. Krylov "Fox and Grapes". Instead of coming up with something or simply leaving with nothing, the angry fox gave out a whole everyday reasoning, the essence of which was the rationalization of the role conflict. It’s worth convincing yourself that “It looks good, but it’s green - the berries are not ripe” - and the conflict is over. In this case, through rationalization, the situation is determined in such a way that role conflict and role tension disappear.
Technique for separating roles
reduces role tension and eliminates role conflict by temporarily removing one of the roles from life and turning it off from consciousness, but while maintaining a response to the system of role requirements inherent in this role.
This is typical for roles that require a person to be particularly tense in one or more of them. Such, for example, is the story of German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, who was nicknamed the “wild Junker” for his frantic temperament, willpower, and intransigence towards political opponents, and who at the same time was unusually affectionate and caring in his interactions with his wife, spending time with her during reading sentimental novels. His main activity and family role were completely separated.
Work clothes, uniforms, and professional titles help people differentiate their roles. Figuratively speaking, each member of society who has successfully socialized expands his “wardrobe” of role masks and puts on one or the other of them depending on the situation: at home he is all gentleness and submissiveness, at work he is cruel and official, in the company of friends he is cheerful and witty .
This process of role transformation creates the opportunity to relieve emotional tension whenever the attitudes inherent in one role collide with the needs of another. If a person has not protected himself by separating roles, these contradictions become conflicts.
Role regulation
differs from the defense mechanisms of rationalization and role division, first of all, in that it is conscious and intentional. Role regulation is a formal procedure by which a person is relieved of personal responsibility for the consequences of performing a particular role. This means that society takes on most of the responsibility for negatively perceived or socially disapproved roles.
Soldiers taking part in combat operations can kill enemy soldiers. When carrying out orders from the command, they do not feel the tension of the conflict role as if they did so in peacetime.
Role conflict is not a conflict situation that occurs between two or more people. This happens inside every person. We can say that we all have several personalities within ourselves. You should not make hasty conclusions about your own mental state. So, each of us performs certain social roles (mother, boss, daughter, etc.). It is between each of them that we will discuss further.
Types of role conflicts
- Status conflict
. No one is immune from this. So, the person takes a new position. Some hopes and expectations are placed on her and suddenly, for certain reasons, she fails to meet them. As a result, this gives rise to the opinion of others about her as an incompetent person, unable to fulfill her promises. Moreover, if the work is of a team nature, difficulties arise in interacting with each of the employees. - Inner "I"
. The reason for this role conflict is the contradictions that have arisen between one’s own expectations and personal abilities. For example, a person believes that he is able to cope with certain life difficulties, but in practice his expectations are not met, he panics and is unable to do anything. It would not be superfluous to give an example when a person finds it difficult to cope with fulfilling a new role for the reason that he has not yet “grown” from the previous one. In India, girls were married off early. One such bride's child drowned. What was the reason? His young mother did not notice the danger because... went to play with dolls with peers. - Ambiguity
. Intrapersonal role conflict arises when an individual faces two different demands, the ambiguity of the conditions of which can plunge him into a stressful state. For example, performing your job duties as efficiently as possible is possible by following prescribed safety regulations. Everything would be fine, but at this plant and business such rules were not provided. - Insufficient resources
. In this case, the cause of role conflict is a lack of time, the influence of circumstances, absence, etc., which makes it impossible to complete the tasks assigned to the person.
What is the essence of role conflict?
Role conflict is a kind of negative experience that appears as a struggle between parts of a person’s inner world. This is a kind of indicator of the presence of problems in interaction with the environment. It delays decision making. Thanks to such a conflict, a person develops, strives for self-identification, improves, and thereby learns his own “I”. Of course, no one says that this process can be pleasant, but, as you know, nothing great or significant comes easy. At first, at the moment of role formation, it is considered quite normal for some inconveniences to arise. In many ways, it depends on the actions of the individual whether he or she can cope with a role conflict or not.
A striking example of such role conflicts from life are the following: a person with a humanitarian mindset enters a technical university, where, of course, he encounters difficulties. No less common is the conflict when you have to “get used to” the role of a mother, a married woman, a pensioner or a student.
In order to overcome a conflict of any nature without any particular negative consequences, you need mental preparation, willpower and a desire to improve your mental health.
Interpersonal conflict theory. Lewin and Deutsch Theory: Interpersonal Conflict
Speaking about conflictology as an interdisciplinary field of knowledge, we have repeatedly noted the existing dialectical and structural relationship between the social and psychological side of the conflict, expressed in practice in the developmental functional potential of the conflict. But the degree of this functionality is different and depends on the individual qualities of the individual - everyone reacts to a conflict situation in their own way, therefore social psychology divides conflicts into the following groups:
• Personal conflicts (psychological, motivational, cognitive, role, intrapersonal);
• Interpersonal conflicts (psychoanalytic interpretation, the theory of “need satisfaction” (K. Levin), the theory of “context dependence” (M. Deutsch), conflicts in various spheres of interaction);
• Intergroup conflicts (motivational approach, situational, cognitive, integrative);
• Intragroup conflicts (Coser: positive functions of conflict, Lewin: “space of free movement”, Deutsch: dependence of the intragroup situation on the nature of the relationships between group members).
>Personality conflicts
1. Psychological conflicts in a person’s inner world are usually divided in social psychology into intrasubjective, related to general psychological problems and the description of personality psychology, and intersubjective, or interpersonal, conflicts (interpersonal and intergroup). This division is very arbitrary, because the commonality of all the above types of conflict is obvious in a real situation of interaction. In any conflict situation, there is a confrontation between two principles in the human soul, which is perceived and emotionally experienced by the person as his psychological problem. Such an experience causes internal work and requires a way out in a conflict situation. And the outcome of this situation depends on the subjective orientation of the individual (its semantic and value attitudes) and on the objective conditions of the conflict. Therefore, the behavior of an individual in a conflict and after it is not uniquely determined by its pre-conflict orientation. “In every psychological conflict experienced by a person throughout his life, he again and again creates his personality through his actions” [Cit. according to 5, pp. 32-35]
2. Motivational conflicts: the famous psychologist K. Levin considered the cause of such conflicts not to be internal psychological contradictions, but to problems associated with a specific life situation of “painful choice,” i.e., the actualization of simultaneously contradictory or incompatible motives. He identified three types of such situations:
• choice between two equally attractive options;
• between two equally unattractive possibilities;
• the presence of a goal that is equally attractive and unattractive to the individual.
3. Cognitive conflicts: clash of incompatible ideas; the so-called situation of “cognitive dissonance”. The stronger the dissonance, which depends on the significance of contradictory ideas for the subject, the more the person strives to weaken or eliminate the situation of contradiction.
4. Role conflicts: arising due to contradictions between the various role responsibilities of an individual. Due to the dissonance between personal capabilities and normative role behavior, situations of role conflict may arise. For example, the “I-role” conflict is a consequence of such a contradiction - “a conflict of duty and personal motives” [Cit. according to 5, pp. 32-35]. In such a situation, a person is faced with a choice: to change himself and abandon the role, or to find a compromise way to weaken and remove contradictions.
5. Inter-role conflicts: occur in a situation where different role positions and the behavior they require turn out to be incompatible (contradictions between family and profession, the role of a boss and a friend, etc.).
Interpersonal conflicts
Interpersonal conflicts are those associated with an individual’s communicative activity and the individual’s behavior in a communication situation. There are several approaches to studying such conflict situations. The most popular of them are two: K. Levin’s position on “the conflict between one’s own and coercive forces” [28, pp. 5-6] and M. Deutsch’s view of conflict as competition [18, pp. 1-5].
In Western literature, situations of this kind are called “Industrial Conflict”. “Industrial conflict” is a conflict between different social categories of workers due to the opposition of their interests, contradictions in organizational structures, and as a consequence, the existence of interpersonal conflicts in the sphere of formal and informal relationships. “As long as one person has power over another (regardless of the nature of their relationship), there is always the possibility that the exercise of that power will be seen as controversial or unreasonable.”
M. Deutsch considers a conflict situation from the point of view of types of interaction: intergroup and intragroup relations.
1. Cooperation-competition: close friends and colleagues belong to the corporate pole of the dimension, and political opponents, personal enemies or a divorcing couple belong to the competitive pole.
2. Distribution of power: equal or unequal; this type of relationship can also be considered as dominance-submission, autonomy-control. In this case, business partners, business rivals, friends are on an equal pole, and master-servant, parent-child, teacher-student are on an unequal pole.
3. Task orientation: the degree of emotional and social orientation toward achieving a goal.
4. Formal and informal nature of the relationship: in informal relationships, the participants themselves determine the nature of the actions, time and movement; in formal relationships, their character is determined mainly by social norms and rules.
5. Intensity and significance: this parameter reflects the deep or superficial nature of the relationship, as well as the degree of interdependence of the participants in communication. Relationships in child-parent and psychotherapist-patient pairs are intense, but in the case of a seller-buyer they are superficial.
Freudianism in conflictology
The Freudian approach assumes that the sources of conflict are in the very structure of the personality. According to 3. Freud, man is conflictual by nature. From birth, two opposing instincts struggle in him, determining his behavior. Such instincts are: eros (sexual instinct, instinct of life and self-preservation) and thanatos (instinct of death, aggression, destruction and destruction). Intrapersonal conflict is a consequence of the eternal struggle between eros and thanatos. This struggle, according to Freud, manifests itself in the ambivalence of human feelings, in their inconsistency. The ambivalence of feelings is enhanced by the inconsistency of social existence and reaches a state of conflict, which manifests itself in neurosis. The conflicting nature of man is most fully and specifically represented by Z. Freud in his views on the structure of personality. Freud's personality diagram is simple and beautiful: he argued that the personality is multi-layered (Super-Ego - Ego - Id), and recognized internal conflict as a natural consequence of dynamic mental life. Such conflict contributes to personal development. It is the pleasure principle. “It” is created by primitive biological desires and strives for their immediate satisfaction, unable to foresee the consequences. I am the principle of reality. “I” appears as a result of the individual’s contact with the outside world. It already separates what is desired and what is real and can plan to satisfy needs. The super-ego is the principle of obligation. The “super-ego” appears in the process of socialization. It contains norms, rules, moral values. Conflict most often arises when “I want” (It), “can” (I) and “need” (Super-I) collide. Such a conflict generates internal tension, which can be relieved with the help of defense mechanisms: repression, fantasies, substitution, rationalization, sublimation. Behavior is based on needs that cannot be eliminated, but only recognized and an appropriate form of satisfaction found for them. Based on Freud's theory, intrapersonal conflicts can be analyzed as conflicts between motives, values and self-esteem. Taking the value-motivational sphere of the individual as the basis for constructing a unified typology of intrapersonal conflict allows us to identify the main structures of the individual’s inner world that come into conflict (A. Shipilov). Motives that reflect the aspirations of an individual at various levels (needs, interests, desires, drives, etc.). Can be expressed by the concept “I want” (“I want”). Values, both accepted by the individual and imposed by society, embodying social norms and acting as standards of what is proper. They are designated as “must” (“I must”). Determining intrapersonal conflict is possible through the analysis of behavior in which hidden needs are unconsciously manifested. This is a violation of the sense of proportion in the relationship between the motive and the forces spent on its implementation. This is behavior that directly contradicts the declared goal, uncriticality towards the illogicality of one’s behavior.
